Napoleon III

Compagnie Générale des Eaux was created in Paris on 14 December 1853 by an imperial decree issued by Napoleon III.

Haussmann was appointed prefect of the Seine on 22 June 1853, replacing Jean-Jacques Berger, whose slow progress had frustrated the Emperor.

On 29 June 1853, Napoleon III instructed Haussmann to aerate, unify, and embellish Paris, establishing the core goals of the renovation.

Britain declared war on Russia on 27 March 1854, following the rejection of an ultimatum to withdraw from the Danubian Principalities.

France declared war on Russia on 28 March 1854, completing the Anglo-French diplomatic sequence against Russian expansion.

Napoleon III requested a classification for Bordeaux wines for the exposition, resulting in the 1855 Official Classification.

The Exposition Universelle opened on 15 May 1855 on the Champs-Élysées, aiming to surpass the British Great Exhibition.

The inaugural race at Longchamp Racecourse took place on Sunday, 27 April 1857, attracting a massive crowd.

Emperor Napoleon III and Empress Eugénie attended the third race, joining other nobles in the Royal Enclosure.

Non-aristocratic upper-class members were excluded from the Royal Enclosure and watched from carriages on the lawn.

Cavour and Napoleon III met at Plombières-les-Bains to agree on a plan to provoke Austria into war with Sardinia.

The treaty creating a formal Franco-Piedmontese alliance was signed in January 1859.

Austria issued an ultimatum to Sardinia following provocative military movements near the frontier.

A joint French and Spanish naval expedition force landed at Tourane (Da Nang) in September 1858 and captured the town.

Napoleon III and Franz Joseph I concluded the armistice at Villafranca on July 11, 1859, setting the stage for the war's end.

The Treaty of Zürich reaffirmed the Villafranca terms, officially closing the Austro-Sardinian War on November 10, 1859.

French and Sardinian forces defeated the Austrians near Magenta on 4 June 1859, marking the first great battle of the Second Italian War of Independence.

The Franco-Sardinian alliance defeated the Austrian army in a costly tactical victory, marking the largest battle since 1813.

Henri Dunant arrived in Solferino on the evening of the battle to petition Napoleon III, witnessing the suffering of wounded soldiers.

Cavour was still formally in office around midnight on 11 July 1859 when informed of the Austrian counterproposal; the passages do not state his exact resignation date.

The Armistice of Villafranca was signed on July 11, 1859, ending the Second Italian War of Independence.

Victor Emmanuel II recalled Cavour on December 22, 1859, after his resignation.

Sardinia mobilized its army on 9 March 1859, initiating the military crisis against Austria.

Austria issued an ultimatum on 23 April 1859, demanding Sardinian demobilization.

Tuscany sided with Sardinia in 1860, leading to its annexation by Piedmont-Sardinia prior to the Kingdom of Italy's formation.

Cavour's reinstatement as Prime Minister facilitated the Treaty of Turin, granting Nice and Savoy to France in exchange for plebiscites in Central Italy.

Uprisings in Messina and Palermo in the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies provided Garibaldi with an opportunity for intervention in April 1860.

Garibaldi led the Expedition of the Thousand in 1860 on behalf of Victor Emmanuel II, departing from Quarto to launch the southern campaign.

Napoleon III visited Algiers in 1860, influencing his subsequent policies regarding religious sites and the political status of Algeria.

Napoleon III halted the policy of converting mosques to churches, siding with the mufti.

Napoleon III planned to establish an Arab client kingdom in Algeria after the visit.

Juárez issued a decree in 1861 suspending foreign debt payments, providing France a pretext for military intervention.

France, Great Britain, and Spain signed the Convention of London to arrange debt payments through military intervention.

Spanish, French, and British governments agreed to the Convention of London to ensure debt repayments from Mexico.

Spanish general Juan Prim occupied Veracruz on 14 December 1861, followed by French and British forces in January 1862.

Tsar Alexander II abolished serfdom in Poland in 1864, depriving the Polish gentry of their workforce.

Resistance persisted in Samogitia and Podlasie until the spring of 1865, led by figures like Stanisław Brzóska.

A crushing defeat on 21 February 1864 presaged the end of the armed struggle against Russian rule.

In April 1864, Napoleon III abandoned the Polish cause, removing international diplomatic support.

Maximilian and his generals were captured after a siege in Querétaro, ending the Second Mexican Empire's resistance.

Maximilian and two conservative generals were executed by firing squad, ending the period of the Second Mexican Empire.

Benito Juárez returned to Mexico City following the departure of French troops, marking the start of the Restored Republic.

The fair opened in April 1867 at the Champ de Mars, marking the culmination of the Second French Empire's renovation efforts.

Abdülaziz visited Paris in June-July 1867, the first Ottoman sultan to travel to Western Europe, for diplomatic and economic reasons.

King William III accepted France's offer to buy Luxembourg on 23 March 1867 due to financial trouble.

The Treaty of London was signed on 11 May 1867, reaffirming Luxembourg's neutrality and independence.

Mège-Mouriès filed French patent No. 86,480 for animal fat production on 15 July 1869, which was granted in October.

Mège-Mouriès secured additional patents in England and Austria in July and October 1869, expanding his intellectual property rights.

In 1871, Mège-Mouriès sold his patent to the Dutch company Jurgens and separately showed his invention to Dutch butter exporter Antoon Jurgens.

Parliamentary elections in May and June 1869 resulted in a regime victory but strengthened the opposition's legislative presence, inflicting a moral defeat on the Empire.

Following the elections, the worst rioting in fifteen years erupted in several French cities, including demonstrations in Paris.

In response to the electoral defeat, the Emperor made concessions, substituting a parliamentary monarchy for his personal government.

The Ems Dispatch was published on 13 July 1870, serving as the immediate casus belli for the war between Prussia and France.

France sent a declaration of war to the Prussian government on 19 July 1870, formally opening the Franco-Prussian War.

Parisian deputies established the Government of National Defence and proclaimed the abolition of the monarchy on 4 September 1870.

Empress Eugénie fled to England with her son after the deposition of Napoleon III on 4 September 1870.

Napoleon III was held in captivity at Schloss Wilhelmshöhe near Kassel from September 1870 to March 1871.