Charles V

Francis I and Charles V concluded the Treaty of Noyon in August 1516, ending the War of the League of Cambrai and restoring the 1508 Italian territorial status quo.

The Imperial Diet of Worms commenced in late January 1521.

Martin Luther appeared before the Diet in mid-April 1521.

Charles V issued the Edict of Worms on 25 May 1521.

Navarrese and French forces captured the Fortress of Pamplona from Spain on 20 May 1521.

Francis I was defeated by Charles V's troops at Pavia, prompting a search for Central European allies.

John Frangipani delivered secret letters to Suleiman in December 1525 requesting aid against the Habsburgs.

Suleiman replied in February 1526, aligning his ambitions with the French request and attacking Hungary.

Francis I, Clement VII, and Italian states signed the League of Cognac to oppose Charles V.

Clement VII remained a prisoner in Castel Sant'Angelo until a ransom was paid to the pillagers.

Unpaid Imperial troops mutinied and forced the Duke of Bourbon to lead them toward Rome.

Imperial troops captured Rome on 6 May 1527, leading to the Pope's flight to Castel Sant'Angelo.

Plague and League forces forced the Imperial army to withdraw in February 1528, leading to peace negotiations.

Doria reformed the constitution to eliminate factions, creating an oligarchic government composed of 28 principal aristocratic families.

Doria vetoed the stationing of a Spanish garrison in Genoa to preserve the city's independence from direct imperial control.

Charles V and Duke Charles signed the treaty in Gorinchem on 20 October 1528.

The Emperor recognized the Duke's control of Guelders, Groningen, and Drente as imperial fiefs.

Duke Charles agreed to name Emperor Charles as his successor.

The treaty was signed at Cambrai on 5 August 1529, ending French involvement in the War of the League of Cognac.

Charles V received the Iron Crown of Lombardy as King of Italy in the Farnese Chapel.

Charles V was crowned Holy Roman Emperor by Pope Clement VII in San Petronio Basilica.

German rulers and free cities presented the Augsburg Confession to Emperor Charles V at the Diet of Augsburg.

The League originated as a defensive religious alliance, with members pledging to defend each other against attacks by Emperor Charles V.

Membership was made conditional on agreement to the Lutheran Augsburg Confession or the Reformed Tetrapolitan Confession, at the insistence of the Elector of Saxony.

Philip I of Hesse and John Frederick I of Saxony formally established the Schmalkaldic League on 27 February 1531 in Schmalkalden.

In 1536, Francis I allied France with Suleiman against Charles V, agreeing to a joint assault on Genoa with French land forces and an Ottoman fleet.

French forces under Philippe de Chabot occupied Turin in April 1536 after pro-Valois elements expelled the Imperial garrison in Asti.

A Spanish army invaded Provence and captured Aix on 13 August 1536, a fruitless expedition that diverted resources from Italy.

Charles V's forces routed the Schmalkaldic League army near Mühlberg, capturing key Protestant leaders and ending the war.

Charles V issued the Pragmatic Sanction, reorganizing the Seventeen Provinces into an indivisible territory while retaining local customs and laws.

Valdivia founded La Imperial on April 16, 1552, honoring Emperor Charles V.

Siena expelled a local leader and allied with France in 1552, provoking Imperial response.

The Florentine-Imperial army besieged Siena from January 1554 to April 1555.

Siena surrendered to Imperial forces in April 1555, ending the Republic.

French and Imperial forces clashed at Renty on 13 August 1554, with Guise leading the French and Charles V commanding the Imperial army.

The treaty was signed in Augsburg on 25 September 1555, ending the religious struggle between Charles V and the Schmalkaldic League.

Carafa was elected pope on 23 May 1555, succeeding Marcellus II despite opposition from Charles V.

Paul IV was crowned as pope on 26 May 1555 by the protodeacon.