Philippine–American War begins: Manila outbreak and first battles

Background. The conflict emerged from the U.S. annexation of the Philippines via the Treaty of Paris in December 1898. Philippine nationalists had proclaimed independence in June 1898 and established the First Philippine Republic in January 1899. The United States did not recognize these events as legitimate, leading to escalating tensions. On February 4, 1899, these tensions erupted into open hostilities in Manila, marking the start of the war.

Outbreak of Hostilities. On the night of February 4, 1899, an incident occurred at Santa Mesa near the Balsahan Bridge, along the concrete blockhouses, while most Filipino generals were at a ball in Malolos. The outbreak of violence triggered the 1899 Battle of Manila, the first and largest battle of the Philippine–American War, fought between 19,000 American and 15,000 Filipino soldiers.

Key Commanders. Arthur MacArthur Jr. led the 2nd Division of the Eighth Corps during the Philippine–American War, including at the Battle of Manila (1899). On the Filipino side, Antonio Luna was a lieutenant general and pharmacist who fought in the war. When the Treaty of Paris, under which Spain was to cede the Philippines to the United States, was made public in December 1898, Luna quickly decided to take military action.