Alexander II launches the judicial reform of the Russian Empire

Background. Prior to 1864, the Russian Empire relied on a cumbersome set of estates of the realm courts. The judicial reform is generally considered one of the most successful and consistent of all Alexander II's reforms, alongside military reform. It introduced a unified judicial system in place of the estate courts and brought fundamental changes to criminal trials.

Enactment. The reforms were formally launched on 20 November 1864, when the tsar signed a decree enforcing four specific regulations. These regulations covered the establishment of judicial settlements, civil and criminal proceedings, and punishments imposed by justices of the peace. This statute established the foundation for the new judicial system.

Judicial Structure. The new system established two wholly separate tribunals, each with its own courts of appeal. These tribunals interacted only through the Senate, which functioned as the supreme court of cassation. The reform introduced security of tenure for judges, based on the French model, ensuring a more stable and independent judiciary.